8.3 Discovery of the River Plain Tradition in the Study Area

A major concern of this project has been to develop a body of data that would either demonstrate: (1) that the Broad Spear complex was no more than a diffused item attached to the Mast Forest adaptation (Snow 1980), or that (2) this complex belonged to a larger set of subsystems that constituted an independent culture system (Pfeiffer 1980a&b, 1984).

To accomplish this goal I focused the investigation in a study area of three neighboring drainage basins. The intent of this approach was to examine more than just one habitation site of the Broad Spear complex. This project was directed towards the demonstration of a cultural pattern developed from the analysis of a series of systemically linked sites that potentially could be shown to reflect a cultural adaptation. While these goals were ambitious, the underlying concept was to acquire internally consistent and synchronically interrelated data.

The choice of the Lyme and Old Lyme townships as the study area was not random. The discovery of the Griffin site and its subsequent analysis (Pfeiffer 1980a&b) caused me to more thoroughly investigate the Broad Spear complex of the Terminal Archaic period in a locality where it was evidenced. My purpose was therefore to work in an area that held a reasonable potential for having other site types that would help define the related cultural system.

Having chosen the study area, I had to decide on a technique for finding habitation sites if they did in fact exist. Random sampling was certainly one approach, however over the 6500 hectare study area it would have left much to chance. Instead, I opted to employ a predictive model based upon settlement patterns known from other areas. I therefore reviewed the literature as presented in sections 3.2-3.4 and determined that river terraces, floodplains, and islands were the primary locations of habitation sites of the Susquehanna tradition in the Hudson Valley and upper Susquehanna Valley (Ritchie 1969a, Ritchie and Funk 1976, Funk and Rippeteau 1977). My survey was consequently directed towards these areas employing informant and collection review, test pitting, and finally excavation. I examined those areas where the model suggested that there might be evidence of the Broad Spear complex. Initially, I found no such sites; however, I did discover a Mast Forest presence. It was only when such sites were carefully and more thoroughly studied did the small discrete Broad Spear components appeared.

8.4 Evidence Suggesting the Local Expression of the River Plain Tradition in the Study Area

The Griffin site (Pfeiffer 1980a&b) was located on a glacial outwash formation overlooking the floodplain of the Connecticut River in Old Lyme. This cremation burial site was excavated as a salvage operation during home construction in 1975. The 46 m2 excavation revealed 19 burial pits that were the receptacles for cremation ash and prolific artifactual offerings (Fig.8.4.2). Artifacts that had been burned and broken during the cremation and subsequently deposited in the offering pits cross-associated all features. This suggested that the time depth at the site was minimal and that a single component was represented. Radiometric dating of these features also suggested minimal time depth. The samples generated the dates of 3005 + 60 [SI-4840], 3005 + 70 [SI-4841], 3250 + 60 [SI-4842], 3105 + 60 [SI-4843], 2985 + 70 [SI-4844], and 3140 + 60 [SI-4845] (Pfeiffer and Stuckenrath 1988). A second series of dates were established by Geochron Laboratories. These age determinations were 3495 + 150 [GX5565] and 3535 + 140 [GX5564]. While there is internal consistency, there is a 500 year disparity between laboratories. The calibration of these dates does little alleviate this situation. (Since the dates were run on large chunks of charcoal that were intentionally split and sent to the two laboratories, the variations are suggestive of differential laboratory procedures and corresponding results, Pfeiffer and Stuckenrath 1988).

Since the Griffin site was a burial site, it was most closely related to an ideological subsystem. Habitation loci needed to be identified in order to formulate the other corresponding cultural subsystems.

One of the initial loci investigated for the existence of a "Susquehanna" or Broad Spear habitation site was Great Island. Surface finds from a collector indicated that there was a Broad Spear complex located on the north end. Over a dozen broad spears had been collected from a small beach encircled by exposed bedrock. A test excavation showed that there was an active beach line with rock, heavy wooden timbers and stumps and generalized river flotsam extending to a depth of one meter. Below that, were some Broad Spear artifacts, but there was also evidence of continued disturbance in the form of a copper boat bottom patch with nails protruding from it. The excavation was curtailed. It is also important that the bedrock outcrop, an exposure of the gneissic Old Lyme dome, had been heavily quarried during the late 18th and early 19th century. Stone slabs were taken by barge into the deeper regions of the Connecticut River to form piers where large ships could off-load material onto shallow draft barges. It is therefore quite possible that this locus along the north shore of the island had been seriously disturbed by such quarry activity.

A twenty-four square meter excavation on the higher ground (2 to 2.5 meters above sea level) showed an occupation zone with a very high density of quartzite debitage. Most of the debitage resulted from primary reduction. Flakes of 2x3 cm were quite common. Few if any had retouch or use wear. One chert broad spear was found in this layer. Several hammerstones were identified in workshop areas. No direct charcoal sample was found except in the southern reaches of the site where a small hearth was identified that overlay the workshop deposits. In the hearth were quartz cobble debitage, two quartz narrow stemmed points and Vinette I and II ceramics, hickory nuts, and seed fragments. A date on the organics in this feature was 2235 + 150 BP [GX-10851]. The Broad Spear component was beneath and therefore older than the dated hearth.

I am not totally satisfied with this cutoff date for the Great Island Broad Spear component. I would, of course have rather had a directly associated sample. Through systematic testing and establishing site size, it was shown that the scatter of quartzite debitage and the Broad Spear component was of greater area than what had actually been excavated. Although additional excavation could have yielded a feature with organics and the required associations, this was not pursued. There were substantial logistical problems in excavating this site. Its location required boat transportation and scheduling to tidal fluctuation since at low water, boats went aground. Another two problems were very potent poison ivy growth and swarms of deer flies, it was difficult to maintain a good relationship with the field crew under such conditions.

What is significant about this site is that it has produced broad spears in an other than mortuary context. However, the full range of activities associated with habitation sites could not be determined. One activity that was quite certain was stone tool manufacture, as evidenced by the preponderance of large primary quartzite flakes and few secondary or retouch flakes. It can be suggested that there was an important activity of reduction of quarry blocks and rough preforms. Hammerstones indicate manufacture through percussion technique. Since there are no usable sources of quartzite from within the study area, and the closest source is the Plainfield formation in Salem to the north and east, either trade or foray was necessary to acquire this raw material (Lavin 1988). The location of this site on the banks of the Connecticut River possibly facilitated such trade or transport.

A stone hearth, a workshop and two quartzite tools of obvious broad spear form was found at a small locus in the Brodeur Point site. The 4m2 locus was defined as Stratum C and appeared distinctly sandwiched between the Mast Forest Tinkham and Brodeur Point phase levels. Debitage in this component was also quartzite, but of a size that suggested secondary reduction of cores or blanks, and as well as bifacial retouch. Charcoal in this hearth was sent to Robert Stuckenrath of the Smithsonian Institute biology laboratories for age determination. The component dated to 2970 + 85 BP [SI-5309]). Brodeur Point Stratum C revealed a dated habitation context with several non-burial activities.

McBride excavated this site in 1983 and identified the existence of this component elsewhere in the site, but was unable to date it (McBride 1984b). His data suggest that such components were not large but were scattered across the entire site, in small distinct habitation loci.

I found the Murdoch Site while systematically testing a location on the outwash terrace 500m south of the Griffin site. A layer between 3 and 5 cm thick was detected during this testing procedure. It was initially discovered through the recovery of chipping material referred to as "ledite" by the Wesleyan Earth and Environmental Department (DeBoer personal communication 1980) and two small retouch flakes of banded rhyolite. During the testing process we were quite sure that we were close to a habitation locus because the debitage was quite diagnostic. The site, however, was stratigraphically thin and was initially missed by conventional random sampling methods. While the survey did delineate a thin layer with a few ledite and rhyolite pieces of debitage in two test pits, the exact area of habitation was not found.

It was only when a trench for underground electrical service was dug that the center of the Murdoch habitation locus was discovered. An expanded excavation was made twenty meters south of the initial test locus. This excavation revealed a substantial habitation of approximately 25m2. Eight broad spear projectiles were found in this excavation . Materials included rhyolite, chert, ledite, argillite, and green "Rhode Island" slate. Two scrapers made from truncated projectile points, possibly broken and reshaped, a bevelled abrading stone, a muller and a shallow mortar were also found (Fig. 8.4.3). Two dark features were also identified as pits, unfortunately with no associated charcoal. Due to the partial salvage nature of the excavation flotation of the site could not be undertaken. However, floral material recovered from the two pits indicated the use of hickory or butternut.

Exotic lithics, including a chert quarry blank and several hundred secondary retouch flakes, were found. There were absolutely no signs of Mast Forest adaptation cultural material. No quartz cobbles, debitage or narrow stemmed projectile points were discovered in the excavation.

The sites of Klinck, Funnell, Mile Creek and 105-34 are similar to the Murdoch and Brodeur Point sites in size and assemblage. Site 105-34, on the banks of the Lieutenant River and identified by McBride during the 1983 survey, yielded exotic rhyolite debitage and a projectile point fragment. A charcoal sample from a hearth was sent to Beta Analytic and a date of 3610 + 70 BP [Beta 7808] was determined (McBride 1984b:118). McBride also excavated a small nearby rock shelter, 105-33, which had a chert broad spear and Vinette I ceramics. A date of 2700 + 60 BP [Beta 7810] was determined (McBride 1984b:118).

Cooper's site on the Eight Mile River in Lyme was also very similar in size and assemblage to Brodeur Point. A small broad spear locus was neatly wedged in between Tinkham and Brodeur Point phase material. Cooper's had a shallow hearth feature with charcoal and unidentifiable bone. The charcoal yielded a date of 2740 + 70 BP [Beta 5314] (McBride 1984b:118).

The Hamburg Cove site followed the same pattern of small habitation loci. Three flint broad spears were found, as well as several fire-cracked rocks and quartzite and flint debitage. This small site, overlooking the Eight Mile River, was discovered during construction of a car dealership and was subsequently destroyed.

A multi-component site is located farther upstream near the confluence of Beaver Brook and the Eight Mile River. It revealed quartzite in both the Late Archaic and Terminal Archaic components. The quartzite was exotic and was undoubtedly transported in. Although it remains unexcavated, surface collection recovered several broad spear points as well as large unfinished preforms. A similar site along the Eight Mile River at Raymond Flats revealed over a dozen broad spears of quartzite and weathered rhyolite. The surface collection from this farm also contained two quartz narrow stemmed points. While this site is inconclusive as to specific components and their distinctions, the locus and the finds are important to report. There is no evidence of burials, but flakes and used tools suggest a habitation context in a riverine setting.

The Gladeview site in Old Saybrook was identified directly across the Connecticut River from Griffin, Murdoch, and Great Island. The River Plain component was small, but had a very discernible cultural layer with steatite bowl fragments, a number of broad spears and broad spear scrapers, a gouge, pestle, hammerstones, and debitage of exotic materials. A large hearth was found with calcined bone and hickory, acorn and hazel nut fragments. A charcoal sample has not yet been sent as the excavation is still underway. This site is probably most similar to Murdoch in size and breadth of activities.

The Two Springs site on Fishers Island, at the eastern opening of Long Island Sound, twenty-five kilometers east of the study area (Funk and Pfeiffer 1988) had a small broad spear locus horizontally separated from the Brodeur Point phase component. Within this very discernible unit was a heavy concentration of ledite and green slate debitage, broad spears, a broad spear scraper, a slotted ulu, and a fragment of a steatite bowl. A chert drill was found in the eroding shore front. The Broad Spear component was dated to 2785 + 260 BP [GX-12562] (Funk and Pfeiffer 1988:80).

A suspected cremation burial known as the Bremmer Site was uncovered during construction, one hundred meters west of the Two Springs habitation locus. Ground axes, adzes, pestles and various burned items were recovered from this possible burial site. Adhering to some of these artifacts was a thin greasy deposit of dark ash and charcoal not unlike residues seen on artifacts from the Griffin, Schwartz, Toelle Road, and Carrier cremation burial sites.

It is important to emphasize the apparent relationship of Two Springs with the Bremmer Site. These two Broad Spear sites are quite close to one another. One is a suspected cremation burial while the other is a small habitation site. This presents a similar pattern evidenced in the study area where the Murdoch, Klinck, Funnell, Great Island and Brodeur Point habitation sites are very close to the Griffin cremation burial site.

This study area data can be organized within a cultural system model to demonstrate that all cultural subsystems are represented. Based upon evidence from the study area I have defined it as the Great Island phase of a distinct River Plain adaptation.

8.4a Economic Subsystem

The subsistence strategy of the Broad Spear group was characterized by a concentration on the flood plain and immediate vicinity. This is a pronounced feature of apparent settlement pattern. All sites are within short distances of the flat land bordering rivers. The Conley site (105-33) in the survey area, has been assigned an upland setting by McBride (1984b), yet, this site was only 0.3 km from the Lieutenant River, only 8 m above sea-level, and certainly not set back into the interior.

The food remains seen in the burial and habitation sites have an unmistakable orientation towards plant material. Seeds and nuts were important and the technological inventory shows mullers, pestles, and shallow mortars. Hunting played a role too, for there is evidence of deer, rabbit and other mammalian species, as well as bird. Fish is not found in the faunal remains nor is it implied by the tool inventory (Turnbaugh 1975). Marine resources such as shellfish do not appear to be in the habitation deposits. With respect to food resources and the adaptive strategy, there is a clear focus upon floodplain resources.

Lavin (1988) suggested that there is good evidence during the period between 4000-3000 BP that the productivity of floodplain regions was expanded (Section 7.1). The warm and dry conditions that have been suggested for this period favored mast food resources and the corresponding productive food chain.

Putting this into perspective on the regional level, the two coring and botanical analyses that concentrated upon the Great Island marshland (Orson personal communication 1983) indicated that prior to 2590 + 90 BP [SI-5314] oak and hickory trees had been growing four meters below the present surface of the peat deposits. These trees were growing at the foot of an outwash plain on the river floodplain, over which the various Broad Spear complex sites were located. Marine transgression occurred immediately after this time, creating the marshland seen today.

Another core sample from a breached kettle two kilometers south of the first core produced the same information. However, the radiometric determination was slightly older. The date of 2760 + 270 [GX-10845] illustrated the change from a freshwater kettle wetland to a thin sand and stone level overlain by more saline species of sedge and grass.

Important points are clearly made from these results. The data suggest: (1) That there was a floodplain environment within close proximity of the Broad Spear complex sites. (2) That this floodplain had mast producing species growing upon it. (3) That the floodplain was drowned out (either by crustal subsidence or eustatic sea level change (Horn, Wesleyan University Earth and Environmental Sciences Department 1983) between 2800 and 2500 BP.

Various floral remains suggestive of this same environmental setting have been found in the sites studied that correspond to the River Plain adaptation. Habitation sites have produced hickory nuts, acorns, and possibly hazelnuts. The Griffin ceremonial site in the study area (Pfeiffer 1980a&b; 1984) evidenced hickory, acorn, hazelnut and chenopodium.

There is clear evidence of the use of non-local materials. This may be most pronounced in sites that are pre-3000 BP, at which point more local sources are indicated (Pfeiffer 1984). Trade was probably important for this culture. Some lithic materials may have come from distances in excess of 350km away. Basalt was used to produce many of the ground stone tools at the Griffin site. Trace element analysis showed that the most likely source was the second Watchung flow of western New Jersey (Steele 1981-21st NEAA conference). Steatite from Griffin, as well as the habitation site at Mile Creek, had garnet inclusions in the matrix. New England "ultramafics" do not have this mineral content (DeBoer personal communication 1983). A source of steatite in eastern Maryland is known to have such inclusions.

A scanning electron microscopy project to study constituent elements of the Griffin site felsites suggested a strong similarity to the South Mountain Maryland felsite quarry in western Maryland (Pfeiffer 1990; Michael Stewart personal communications 1987). Figure 8.4.5 shows composite SEM graphic for both samples.

The acquisition of such exotics may have been through direct foray or more probably through exchange between neighbors. Contemporary hunters and gatherers are known to do this quite often (Pfeiffer 1982:65; Lee and DeVore 1968:199; Chagnon 1968:97-103; Gould Personal Communications 1985). Such exchange may also have had the effect of causing many stylistic traits to pass from one area to another. This process could have expanded the inventory of potential point forms a knapper could make because he (or she) knew of different styles being made in other regions. This may explain the synchronic diversity of diagnostic point types seen in some site assemblages in the study area.

A Broad Spear site characteristic, strengthening the trade hypothesis is that site location would have permitted exchange along riverine corridors. This may partially explain the Great Island site and the activity related to quarry block and or preform reduction. This also may have been occurring at the Beaver Brook site. While tentative, I propose that following the Eight Mile River and the east branch of the Eight Mile River to their sources would place a traveller well within the Plainfield formation of Salem.

The characteristic of exotic materials is a critical element for the reconstruction of the Great Island phase economic subsystem. While the adaptation seen in the study area implies a focal subsistence pattern keyed on the local floodplain, there is also clear evidence of economic supplementation from regions outside the study area. The process that facilitated exchange has had a distinctive influence on the other cultural subsystems.

8.4b The Social Subsystem

The habitation sites in the study area were generally of small to possibly moderate size. The archaeological signature of such sites was usually a tight assemblage in a thin and horizontally restricted locus. I know of no site in the study area where I would infer any more than family or extended family residence at any specific time. However, it is possible that simultaneously there were several such habitation sites in the study area, suggesting a population lightly spread out across the riverine environment. The burial sites have a more vivid archaeological signature. This situation caused them to be recognized early on in the history of archaeology in southern New England and the study area. This differential representation produced a misunderstanding of the nature of the Broad Spear phenomenon.

Burial deposits were apparently produced within a very short period of time (Pfeiffer 1980a&b; 1984). The magnitude of the assemblage and the number of features may suggest a much larger than family or extended family aggregation. It is possible that local families came together for such ceremonial activities. This also could exhibit itself as a tendency toward burial assemblage variability. If populations that had been spread across the river bottom land aggregated only at special times, there was a greater potential for variability between regions. First, exchange of information between groups would occur infrequently permitting a tendency toward individualization. Second, because of the spread-out nature of the settlement pattern, there would be greater chance of experiencing variation as a result of inputs from other distant regions. Thus when groups came together for the cremation burial ceremony, each unit may have had a slightly different stylistic assemblage that in turn became part of the burial lot. This mechanism may have also facilitated the flow of exotic lithic materials seen as a significant attribute of the River Plain adaptation.

8.4c The Technological Subsystem

The technological subsystem as indicated from habitation sites adds the shallow mortar and muller to the list of tools. Other tools noted in the study area were broad spears, scrapers made from truncated projectile points, cruciform and square based drills, large knives or daggers, pestle-hones, abrading stones, bevelled (sinew) stones, cylindrical hammers and punches, axes, gouges, chisels, native copper, cache blades, quarry blocks, and exotic lithic material (Pfeiffer 1980a&b; 1984).

A nearly full range of activities is indicated by the array of different tool types. These activities are hunting, gathering, butchering, grinding of seeds and nuts, scraping, the processing of sinew, woodworking, resharpening of woodworking tools, fire making, and specialized techniques to produce tools. There is no evidence to support fishing or shell fishing.

Several of the technological attributes are quite distinctive. Within the tool making inventory are cylindrical hammerstones and punches. These were used to generate long thin flakes during the reduction process of cores and quarry blocks. The purpose of such percussors is to direct the blow to a very precise area. Such a technology produced very standardized results (Dincauze 1968:16; Cresson 1990:105; Pfeiffer 1980a&b,1984,1990; Kalin personal communications 1986). These standardized results are seen in the form of various chipped stone tools. The outstanding attribute of broad spear projectiles that relates to this technology is their even thinness. Many of the larger blades exhibit a slight twist from tip to base. This is a result of the procedure utilizing precise percussion. An interesting feature of undetermined purpose is that most broad spear projectile points have the initial bulb of percussion oriented toward the tip rather than the base. This implies that when the knapper started making the point after producing the initial long thin flake, that the thickest portion was toward the tip. This is opposite many of the production processes utilized in other archaeological cultures (Pfeiffer 1990 ;Kalin personal communications 1986). Another characteristic attribute of projectile point form are ground bases and notches. Hones that could have performed this task are found in the inventory of tools (Pfeiffer 1980b).

Another feature of the technology is the importance of axes, adzes, gouges, and chisels (Pfeiffer 1990). These classes of artifacts suggest an important heavy woodworking industry. Coupled with the known pattern of exotic lithic material, and sites that apparently are stationed along navigable watercources, it is not unreasonable to hypothesize the construction of dugout canoes. The use of canoes may well have linked many of the sites together, expedited long distance trade, and facilitated the exchange of information. Part of this information exchange may have taken place as burial ceremonialism.

8.4d The Ideological Subsystem

The ideological subsystem as inferred from burial ceremonialism is understood through evidence from the Griffin site (Pfeiffer 1980a&b) as well as Salisbury Place (Section 3.3). The evidence indicates an elaborate burial program that ended in the interment of cremated bone and ash. Cremation ash pits revealed no sign of in place burning. Therefore there was probably a nearby crematorium. No such feature has been located in the study area. Burial pits were clearly the receptacles for cremated materials including human bone, dog, deer, floral remains as acorns, hickory, hazelnut, chenopodium, and artifacts that were either offered at the time of cremation or given later when the ashes were placed in the funerary pits. Results of the analysis of human skeletal material from the Griffin site was identical to the findings for the Duck Bay phase of the Lake Forest adaptation. This is discussed at length in section 8.1d.

There were nonhuman skeletal materials found at the site. There were two maxillary fragments and several teeth of dog and a long bone of a deer. These bones were better preserved and apparently had been green when placed in the crematorium. This is evidenced by the incomplete combustion of the cancellous epiphyses. Such regions of the human bones were totally burned away, because when dried they become very combustible. The same regions in the deer bones were unburned as a result of their cellular liquid. This evidence would be consistent with meat offerings. The dog bone and teeth could have also been a food offerings or possibly a ritual sacrifice as suggested within section 8.1d.

The burial pits at the Griffin site contained prolific artifactual offerings. Many of the tools were unused and retained sharp unworn edges. However, several features revealed sets of artifacts that had been rejuvenated or resharpened. This is true for projectile points as well as many of the woodworking tools and hones. The grave associated artifacts should be considered utilitarian objects. While not all tool classes were observed in the habitation loci many projectile points, scrapers, drills, knives, and woodworking tools were found on both site types.

The ceremonial features of the Great Island phase are very similar to those defined in the Duck Bay phase. While the ideological subsystems, as far as we can perceive them, are identical, there are substantial differences in the other inferred cultural subsystems to define separate but related culture systems. This relationship is the topic of section 9.2.

8.4e Formulation of The River Plain Adaptation

To summarize, the systems data suggest that there is a complete culture system directly associable to the Broad Spear complex. The assemblages from burial contexts are also found in habitation loci. The settlement pattern indicates small groups spread out across the post-Pleistocene terraces overlooking the floodplain. The radiometric analyses of this study area directly indicates a 3600-2700 BP span for this cultural system as opposed to the range of 4800-4250 BP for the Lake Forest regional expression and 4300-2200 BP for the Mast Forest and related phases. I have therefore identified this particular cultural system within the study area during the Terminal Archaic period as the Great Island phase of the River Plain adaptation. The addition of data from adjacent areas such as Old Saybrook, Essex, East Haddam, and Fishers Island also supports this formulation.

Figure 8.4.1 Local River Plain Adaptation Sites: Great Island Phase Dates & Calibrations
 
 

Site	Lab # Date	Cal BP	Cal BC	Max/Min BP	Max/Min BC
Griffin    GX-5564	3535+140	3836	1887	3979-3640	2119-1691
Griffin    GX-5565	3495+150	3825,3785,3770,3746,3734	1876,1836,1821,1797,1785	3979-3619	2030-1670
Griffin    SI-4840	3005+60	3214	1265	3335-3111	1386-1162
Griffin    SI-4841	3005+70	3214	1265	3341-3083	1392-1134
Griffin    SI-4842	3250+60	3470	1521	3564-3399	1615-1450
Griffin    SI-4843	3105+60	3358	1409	3386-3264	1437-1315
Griffin    SI-4844	2985+70	3208,3181,3177	1259,1232,1228	3328-3052	1379-1103
Griffin    SI-4845	3140+60	3373	1424	3456-3277	1507-1328
Great Is  GX-10851	2235+150	2317,2222,2217	368,273,268	2359-2059	410-110
Brodeur Pt  SI-5309	2970+85	3204,3189,3170	1255,1240,1221	3328-2997	1379-1048
105-34  Beta7808	3610+70	3959,3922	2010,1973	4073-3837	2124-1888
105-33  Beta7810	2700+60	2787	838	2859-2758	910-809
Copper's  Beta5314	2740+70	2850	901	2935-2772	986-823
Two Sprng  GX-12562	2785+260	2872	923	3322-2719	1373-770

Figure 8.4.2aFigure 8.4.2b
 

Figure 8.4.3aFigure 8.4.3b

Figure 8.4.4Figure 8.4.5
 
 

8.5 Study Area during the Late and Terminal Archaic Periods: Temporal Position of theReconstructed Cultural Systems

The initial research problem introduced in section 1.0 of this paper was to establish the nature of the Broad Spear complex. While this study has shown a distinct culture system for the Broad Spear complex, it has also defined the regional expressions for both the Lake Forest and Mast Forest Archaic and related phases. The relationship of these adaptations is necessary to understand because this may explain the origin and eventual end of the River Plain adaptation. There was clear evidence from the study area that there were two adaptations during the Late Archaic. The Lake Forest adaptation was characterized by a Duck Bay phase that dated between approximately 4800-4250 BP. The Mast Forest adaptation was represented in the study area as the Tinkham phase with a corresponding time span of approximately 4300-3600 BP.

During the Terminal Archaic period, there was evidence of a redirected cultural development that had its origin in the Tinkham phase, but displayed adjustments to the social and economic subsystems. These changes significantly altered the Tinkham phase to the degree that a separate descendant Cedar Lake phase was identified and defined. The dates of this manifestation are approximately 3500-2900 BP. During the Terminal Archaic period there was also clear evidence of the Great Island phase of the River Plain adaptation. At the end of the Terminal Archaic period, there again appeared to be a cultural readjustment in the Mast Forest adaptation. The changes occurred in the social and economic subsystem and corresponded to an expanded settlement and subsistence base. The changes produced the Brodeur Point phase that spanned approximately 2900-2200 BP (Figs. 8.5.1; 8.5.2a,b,c). The temporal position of sites and subsequent spans of each of the identified phases in the study area were analyzed with the assistance the calibration curves and computer program produced by Stuiver and Reimer (1988).

The specific site calibration information is in the appropriate sections of the text as a chart.

Using the calibration data to put together spans for the various phases indicates that the Duck Bay phase spanned the period from approximately 5750 to 4450 BP. This suggests that the regional expression of the Lake Forest adaptation spanned at least 1300 years as compared to the 550 years when analyzed by conventional means. Most of this increase occurred at the older end of the phase, where dates were revised by 1000 years. However, at the most recent end of the span, dates were 200 years older.

The Mast Forest Tinkham and related Cedar Lake and Brodeur Point phases have spans that were also expanded through calibration. The Tinkham phase was determined to be 700 years older. The span was from 5000 to 3600 BP. instead of 4300 to 3600 as indicated through the conventional laboratory dates. The Cedar Lake phase was re-analyzed and was now seen to have persisted for a thousand years from 3850 to 2850 BP. The original calculation suggested a 600 year span from 3500 to 2900 BP. The Brodeur Point phase showed the least amount of change from the calibration procedures. The span increased only 200 years and most of this was at the more recent terminus. The calibrated span was from 2975 to 2075 instead of the conventional calculation of post 2900 to 2200 BP.

The calibration of the site dates and the corresponding calculation of the temporal span of the Great Island phase suggested that there was a 1325 year span from 4075 to 2750 BP. The span indicated by the regular uncalibrated dates was 3600 to 2700 BP. The calibrations produced a 475 year extension toward the older end of the span.

The approach of calibrating the radiometric dates from the study area achieved several things. First, all of the temporal spans corresponding to the phases were expanded. Second, through this approach there is an indication of temporal overlap for the Duck Bay and the Tinkham phases. There is also an overlap of the Tinkham, Cedar Lake, and Brodeur Point phases. The

Great Island and Cedar Lake phase are clearly co-existant. Third and potentially most significant, the temporal gap or discontinuity between the Duck Bay and Great Island phase was closed to 375 years (Fig. 8.5.3).
 

Figure 8.5.1

 
 
 

Figure 8.5.2a Duck Bay Phase Table of Inferred Subsystems

Figure 8.5.2b Great Island Phase Table of Inferred Subsystems

Figure 8,5,2c Tinkham Phase Table of Inferred Subsystems

Figure 8.5.2d Cedar Lake Phase Table of Inferred Subsystems

Figure 8.5.2e Brodeur Point Phase Table of Inferred Subsystems

Figure. 8.5.3 Late Archaic Terminal Archaic Early Woodland

8.6 The Study Area during the Late and Terminal ArchaicPeriods: Cultural Relationships between the Reconstructed Culture Systems

The Great Island phase and the Cedar Lake phase were coexistent in the study area. The comparison between the Cedar Lake phase and the Great Island phase (Fig. 8.6.1) suggested insignificant overlap. The Cedar Lake and Great Island phases represented two separate culture systems. The comparison of the features that made up the social subsystems suggested that there were significant differences in settlement patterns, as well as site composition. The Cedar Lake phase had habitation sites of various sizes up to large seasonal encampments totally dependent upon the productivity of local resources. The range of residence probably fluctuated accordingly, from family to band units. The settlement pattern for the Great Island phase suggested small probably, single family residence units. Such sites were probably used for several seasons and were less dependent upon immediate available resources since the adaptation utilized the technology of storage. There was an equally significant difference in the locations of sites. The Cedar Lake phase had a concentration on upland interior streams, lakes and wetlands. The Great Island phase on the other hand demonstrated a concentration specifically oriented towards the riverine bottom lands or floodplain.

The comparison of the economic subsystems revealed a major difference. The Cedar Lake phase, with its upland interior settlement pattern, was adapted to upland aquatic, terrestrial, and upland wetland resources. The Great Island phase exhibited a very focal economic adaptation that was keyed on specific floodplain resources. This was especially manifested in the gathering of floral materials.

The technological subsystems were very different. The Cedar Lake phase utilized a quartz cobble and direct percussion technology that produced flakes about as long as they were wide. The resultant product of such a technology was most clearly evidenced in the variable thickness of projectile points and other chipped stone tools. The Great Island phase quarried cherts and felsites as well as local quartzite. Through indirect percussion, employing punches and cylindrical hammers, standardized and thus replicable results were achieved. Chipped stone tools were uniform in dimension, especially with respect to thickness.

There were major differences in the ideological subsystem as seen in the burial program. The Great Island phase exhibited lavish, intricate cremation burial ceremonialism while the Cedar Lake phase probably evidenced primary burial with minimal elaboration.

There were significant differences in all of the cultural subsystems to indicate that these two adaptations were distinct cultural systems. The evidence suggested that they both existed in the study area during the Terminal Archaic period and apparently maintained their own individual character. The mechanism for this situation are addressed in section 9.0.

The comparison between the Duck Bay phase of the Lake Forest adaptation and the Tinkham, Cedar Lake, and Brodeur Point phases (Fig. 8.6.2) showed some similarity with respect to the economic subsystem. Here, both adaptations utilized the same environmental zones and the corresponding fauna and flora. Yet, technologically and socially, they did it differently. Settlement types were different with respect to length of stay as well as number of activities seen on site. Tinkham, Cedar Lake, and Brodeur Point phases appeared to have made little use of storage pits. This would have made relocation toward available resources a necessary alternative. Duck Bay phase habitations were more permanent. These sites were used for extended periods of time and there was clear evidence for the use of many storage pits. This produced a reliable subsistence base during extended periods of residence. Both adaptations used the upland rockshelter. However, these sites were used in significantly different ways. Lake Forest upland components showed a restricted range of hunting or other task specific activities. The residence patterns in these sites were associated with small groups, who utilized only a percentage of the potential living space, and occupied the site for a short time. Mast Forest occupation of these same areas showed a full range of activities, greater number of people in the group, longer term occupation, and the use of a majority of potential living space.

There was some overlap in the technological subsystem between the Duck Bay phase and the phases related to the Mast Forest adaptation. There was use of quartz cobbles by both adaptive groups. However, the degree to which these phases used such resources stands as a major difference. The Duck Bay phase had a technological predisposition toward Plainfield formation quartzite, and employed a tool making process based upon precise percussion. The manufacturing techniques utilized by the Tinkham, Cedar Lake and Brodeur Point phases revolved around less standardized percussive methods and rarely utilized quartzite. There was no evidence of overlap or similarity in the ideological subsystem as represented in the burial customs. The Duck Bay phase exhibited intricate cremation burial ceremonialism. The best indication was that the Tinkham, Cedar Lake, and Brodeur Point phases utilized primary interment and sparse use of grave goods.

The comparison between the Lake Forest and Tinkham, Cedar Lake, and Brodeur Point phases showed a slight degree of similarity. However, the overwhelming impression was that there were considerable differences between the cultural subsystems. I suggest that these differences support the definition culturally and temporally separate systems. The comparison of the Lake Forest adaptation and the River Plain adaptation (Fig. 8.6.3) presented both differences and similarities. These two adaptations were the closest with respect to overlap in various subsystems. The Duck Bay and the Great Island phases were separated by 650 to 375 years, depending upon how the spans are calculated. The cultural similarity was most strong in the ideological subsystem. There was clear evidence that they shared the same elaborate burial customs as well as the same burial ground. Both adaptations cremated the dry bones of their dead and at the cremation ceremony some mourners may have made personal sacrifice of their own fingers. During the ensuing interment ceremony cremation ash was buried in elliptical pits. Food, utilitarian artifacts, nuggets of lustrous native minerals including crystals, and a sacrificial dog were placed in offering features. Finally there was clear evidence that ocher was sprinkled over the burial pits. The technological subsystems shared some features, such as the standardized methods of producing projectile points, and the use of certain lithic materials as quartzite and rhyolite. There was also evidence that both adaptations employed storage technology, made use of heavy woodworking tools, and possibly used dugout canoes. However, there were also differences. The use of quartz cobbles by the Lake Forest adaptation sets these culture systems apart. The inferred social subsystems had some overlap, yet these subsystems were subject to change as environments and the necessary adaptive realignments occurred. What can be pointed out here was that the Great Island phase appeared to have concentrated on one of the zones that had been effectively adapted to by Duck Bay phase 1500 years earlier. The reason for this may have been that the Great Island phase was adapted to the increased productivity of the riverine floodplains that has been suggested during the Terminal Archaic period (Lavin 1988:106). While these two groups were adapted to the same region, they did it in different ways. The settlement pattern for the Duck Bay phase showed large habitation sites occupied by bands. The settlement pattern for the Great Island phase showed small sites with family or extended family residence.

A comparison of the economic subsystems showed a broader subsistence base for the Duck Bay phase. There was specific evidence for the use of fish and shellfish for the Duck Bay phase while there was no information suggesting that these resources were used by the Great Island phase. Floral materials were especially important for both adaptations. Acorn, hickory, hazelnut and chenopodium were gathered and stored.

Figure 8.6.1 Comparison of Great Island to Cedar Lake Phases

Figure 8.6.2 Comparison of Duck Bay to Tinkham, Cedar Lake, and Brodeur Point Phases

Figure 8.6.3 Comparison of Duck Bay to Great Island Phase

[Introduction][Chap.1][Chap.2][Chap.3][Chap.4][Chap.5][Chap.6][Chap.7][Chap.8.0][Chap.9]
[Conclusion/Remarks10-11][Bibliography12]  [Homepage]

---

Dr. John E. Pfeiffer