Figure 8.1.2
CULTURAL ADAPTATIONS
of the
LOWEST CONNECTICUT VALLEY
John E. Pfeiffer
Chapter 8 - First half
8.0 Evidence for Local Expression of the Lake Forest Tradition in the Study Area
The Late Archaic as described in Sections 4 and 7 has been said to span the period 6000-3700 BP (Snow 1980). The archaeological manifestations of the same period indicate that several cultural traditions existed in this period. These were the Maritime, Lake Forest, and Mast Forest traditions. Dincauze (1975:29) and Snow(1980:227) have said that in southern New England, there was only a Mast Forest presence. McBride (1984a&b) referred to a Golet phase, a Vibert phase, and Tinkham phase on the basis of Lower Connecticut Valley and eastern Connecticut survey and excavation. The basis for these distinctions was temporal, and from differing abstracted portions of the culture systems. Lavin (1988) has reviewed these data from eastern Connecticut and notes similarities to patterns developing in the Quinnipiac valley. She finds that sites of the Laurentian may relate to the "Burwell complex".
The data for the study area suggest that Funk (1984, 1988) McBride (1884) and Lavin (1984, 1988) are certainly on the right track in interpreting the data to suggest the presence of a "Connecticut Laurentian". I prefer to use the term "Lake Forest tradition" for reasons discussed earlier, and then describe the study area's particular regional expression rather than use a term with specific reference to a region that is hundreds of kilometers to the north of this study area. In the study area, the presence of the Lake Forest tradition is at more than the "insignificant" level described by Dincauze (1975:25-26) and McBride (1984b:238-241). Of all sites in the study area, approximately thirty percent have Lake Forest associations.
8.1 Excavations Within the Study Area Relating to a Local Expression of the Lake Forest Tradition
From 1973 to 1975, various coastal, riverine, and upland sites were discovered and tested in one small drainage system in Old Lyme as part of a regional analysis. In the summer of 1975, the Griffin site, a "Susquehanna" cremation burial site, was systematically excavated. The properties immediately adjoining this site were reported to have similar finds, according to oral tradition. The Bliss yard immediately west of the Griffin site required extensive engineering for a septic system in the fall of 1980.
Late in the fall of 1980, members of the Archaeological Society of Southeastern Connecticut (ASSEC), under my direction, tested the Bliss family's back yard in Old Lyme. A feature was encountered here, after intensive post hole sampling. A one meter square was placed about the 15 cm test unit and sample excavation revealed a small pit, that I designated as Bliss Feature A. The pit matrix was very organic and laden with charcoal. Within and therefore directly associated with the pit was one small quartz triangular eared point. A sample of charcoal was sent to the Smithsonian radiometric laboratory and a date of 4280 + 120 BP [SI-4846] was determined. The following summer we returned to the Bliss site for further information.
Excavation of 46 square meters by students from SUNY Albany, Wesleyan University, and ASSEC members revealed twenty-one burial features. Grave offerings of eared triangular projectile points, bannerstones, pestles, axes, blades or knives, scrapers, animal bones, seeds, and nuts were recovered. Many artifacts appeared to have been ritually broken or "killed"; some artifacts were highly stylized and probably produced solely for the cremation ceremony. There was a preponderance of artifacts made of non-local lithic materials such as quartzite, slate, and rhyolite. Red ocher and ground muscovite mica was used to cover features. Quartz crystals, metallic nuggets, and sheet mica were found in some features. Human skeletal remains were identified and analysis suggests that these were dried prior to cremation (Pfeiffer and Ziac 1989).
Most of the material found in the excavation was in burial features. However, there was a lithic scatter between some features. Since the scatter and burial features were on the same level, it seemed likely that more than burial ceremonial activity occurred at the site. Tool making or repairing may have also taken place.
Radiocarbon dating placed the Bliss site in the first half of the forth millennium BP. Four 14C dates are: 4675 + 100 [SI-5303], 4775 + 120 [SI-5304], 4535 + 95 [SI-5305], and 4765 + 180 [SI-5306] (Pfeiffer 1984, Pfeiffer and Stuckenrath 1989). The time depth at the Bliss site apparently was minimal since broken artifacts from some features pieced together with fragments from other features. A cross dating of such features was therefore possible. A short period is also suggested by the tight cluster of 14C dates that relate back to one event - the cremation.
Of major significance here is that:
(1) Another cremation locus, the Bliss burial site was identified adjacent to the Griffin cremation burial site. The burial program appeared to be very similar; however, artifact types were quite different and there was a time difference of at least 1500 years.
(2) Artifact types at the Bliss site were quite similarto those outlined by Ritchie (1969a), Funk (1976), and Snow (1980) for Laurentian-Lake Forest. In fact, upon inspection by Ritchie in 1981, he stated,"that the Laurentian may be better represented at the Bliss site than from where it had been initially identified".
(3) Finally, a question arose concerning the relationship of Feature A to the rest of the site.
During the summer of 1983, ASSEC members, students from SUNY Albany, Wesleyan University, and local high schools excavated 184 square meters immediately south and east of the Bliss cremation site and west of the Griffin site. An extensive Lake Forest camp, the Bliss-Howard site, was discovered to be situated on top of a well drained glacial outwash deposit. Testing outward from the Bliss-Howard site suggested a size of probably more than 1000m2. Yet it is also suggested that this entire area may not have been utilized just at one time as different testing loci produced slightly different assemblages and radiometric dates.
The Bliss-Howard site presently overlooks the inundated flood plain of the Connecticut River. Today a major salt marsh system and resulting peat deposit overlies this flood plain. Core sampling of this deposit indicates an age of no more than 2700 years. Therefore, the floodplain was exposed until the end of the Terminal Archaic period and was present when the Bliss-Howard site was occupied. Distinct post mold outlines revealed three oblong structures with compact living floors, storage pits, refuse pits, hearths, and workshops in addition to the burial area (Fig. 8.1.2). A sample of charcoal from Feature W within Structure #1 produced a date of 4410 + 100 BP [GX-10848], showing that the Geochron laboratory dated the site two hundred fifty years or so more recent than the Smithsonian dates for the Bliss site. Since portions of artifacts within pits in the floor of structure #1 articulated with portions in the Bliss burial area, which dated two hundred fifty years older, I suggest that the variation in dates is a consequence of different laboratory procedure. This situation is discussed in detail elsewhere (Pfeiffer and Stuckenrath 1989).
Structure #1 (Fig. 8.1.3) measured 10.2 m long x 5 m wide, therefore encompassing slightly over 50 square meters. Its long axis was east-west with an opening on the south side. Its outline was determined by plotting and proving over fifty post molds. It should be noted that a section of the north wall of this feature had been partially obliterated by the recent growth of a black willow tree. Molds in this three meter stretch are thus problematical. Elsewhere, each mold, which formed the probable framework of the walls and roof, was sectioned in two dimensions to make sure that it had been produced by cultural processes. The average diameter of these molds was 5 and 7 cm, and they were 10-15 cm deep. Two much larger post molds were found toward the west and east ends of structure. These were slightly (.5 m) inset from the external outline of smaller post molds. The larger post molds, which were 20 cm in diameter, extended down 35-40 cm from the old surface and were slightly pointed towards the bottom (Fig. 8.1.4). It is likely that these two post molds contained supports for a ridge pole to which the smaller external posts were attached.
A one-half scale model of this structure was produced for a museum display in early 1986 by ASSEC members under my direction. This project brought out several interesting features that help us to understand the design of this structure. While the archaeological evidence does not directly suggest the use of horizontal wattles woven between the external perimeter uprights, when we used this technique in our model, the structure became self-supporting. This may explain why the evidence for the external poles indicated that they were not deeply set into the ground. Further, there were particular types of saplings that were better than others for making both upright posts as well as the horizontal woven wattles. Hickory worked very well, as did gray birch. However, let either dry out and it became impossible to effectively bend these members. Also suggested here is that such members (uprights and horizontals) must have been relatively long and thin. Diameters under 5 cm worked the best.
Other features of the structure also became clear when the model was built. When excavating Structure #1, there were several interior post molds that were interpreted as the supports for benches, which were against the eastern wall. The assessment of this was made on the observation that the soil matrix between the external perimeter (wall) and the internal post was much less compact. Upon constructing such benches, using the perimeter wall as the rear bench support, the structure became substantially more rigid.
The internal layout of Structure #1 is also important ( Fig. 8.1.5). Toward the western end and evenly set away from the walls was an interior basin shaped hearth identified by slightly reddened earth, heavily fire-cracked rock, charcoal flecked matrix, occasional burned nut fragments, and calcined bone. A fragment (.5 cm x 1 cm) of a perforated, ground, and polished winged bannerstone was found toward the bottom of the hearth. This articulated with a fragment found in Feature S and Feature C of the Bliss cremation burial site. It also fit with another fragment found in a large storage pit six meters below the surface within Structure #2.
Several scrapers and knives were found in eastern locations around the hearth. Toward the center of the structure was a small (15 cm x 15 cm) pit with two perfectly made eared and serrated quartzite triangular points. They were similar to the specimen found in Feature H of the Bliss burial ground nine meters to the north and west.
Storage Feature W was found against the southeastern wall of Structure #1. Within it were fish, bird and deer bone, charred acorns, walnuts, hickory nuts, chenopodium, several quartz chips, two ulus, two quartz bifaces, a triangular eared point, and small scattered pieces of fire-cracked rock. I suspect that this feature had been an internal storage pit that was later used as a refuse pit.
Toward the outside of this structure on either side of the door was a workshop area noted by hammerstones and hundreds of chips, most of cobble quartz; however, some quartzite was also found. Several eared triangular points were found in this activity locus.
Structure #1 also had an especially elongated quartz narrow stemmed point, a fragment of a shallow gouge, a broken axe, a spokeshave and a drill on or in its living floor.
Several important archaeological relationships are integral to having a complete perspective of the Bliss-Howard site. First, the habitation area is contemporaneous with and culturally identical with the Bliss burial ground. Second, a full range of activities is suggested, and correspondingly more than one season of occupation may be inferred. Third, a very long narrow stemmed point was unmistakably within the structure. Fourth, a quartz cobble industry, although not the major lithic industry, is present in direct stratigraphic and feature association and must be considered part of the local Lake Forest technology.
Other excavations in the Old Lyme area have also yielded dated Lake Forest materials. The Ames Rock Shelter (Pfeiffer 1982b) had a quartzite tool assemblage in Stratum IVC. Stratum IVC represented a tremendous change in the selection of raw material from which to make tools. Where the overlying components showed a 97% concentration upon quartz cobbles to produce tools, Layer IVC had a major decrease in the use of quartz cobbles to 50%. The quartz cobble industry and the quartzite technology shared nearly equal importance. Most projectile points were long, thin, serrated quartzite eared triangles yet approximately 20% were quartz eared and triangular forms (Fig.8.1.6). Points from the Ames site were found in a workshop and hearth area suggesting a habitation context. It is likely that this site represented a back country camp where a few band members would stay for short periods of time while hunting and processing food. A charcoal sample was dated to 4275 + 255 BP. Even though the Ames rock shelter had over 150m2 of usable living space, the habitation area of this component was less than 10m2.
Also in Old Lyme, in the Lieutenant Duck Bay drainages, there are two small rock shelters with similar but substantially smaller occupations. With the exception of a few pieces of quartz and quartzite debitage and eared triangular projectile points nothing else was recovered. Kaiser I and Duck River shelter were undated but have regionally defined diagnostics that permit them to be ascribed to the Duck Bay phase. Coudert Ledge in Lyme showed a very small but distinct component related to the local expressions of the Lake Forest. The rock shelter potentially afforded 30m2 of usable space; however, only a small portion of this area can be shown to have been used during this phase of habitation. Short term use is suggested. This is consistent with this site functioning as a hunting camp. Interestingly, this component produced two eared triangular points and a long thin very symmetrical narrow stemmed point made of quartzite. This specimen was very reminiscent of another in the house pattern the Bliss-Howard site.
A third site type for the Lake Forest tradition is suggested by relatively small sites, usually under 200m2. However, they show a wider range of activities than do rock shelters. This third type of Lake Forest site still appears to represent occupations of short duration. Possibly these were single family camps. Such sites were open air and located on hills overlooking streams and wetlands.
The Arbucci site in Old Lyme, excavated in 1984 by combined crews from Wesleyan, ASSEC, and Project Learn mirrored some of the results generated from Ames and Bliss-Howard. Thinly-flaked serrated edge quartz eared and triangular points were found. At Arbucci, twenty square meters of excavation established the existence of one component. Two features with charcoal, thirty quartz flakes, ten with cobble surfaces still present, several fire-reddened and cracked rocks and three points were found. Because the site was single component and due to the tight nature of the assemblage, we can be quite certain of the association between the local expression of the Lake Forest tradition and the quartz cobble technology. As at the other sites of Bliss-Howard and Ames the quartz cobble and the quartzite lithic technologies go together. A sample of charcoal from Feature A, which had a very heavy concentration of charcoal and a directly associated eared triangular quartz point, generated a date of 4470 + 100 BP [GX-10852] (Pfeiffer 1984,1990).
The Heflon site (Golet personal communication), one kilometer southeast of Bliss-Howard, reiterated the findings of Arbucci and Bliss-Howard. Here, over fifty quartz eared triangular points as well as nearly a dozen quartz corner notched points have been found as surface finds in the plowed field. Quartzite is represented by only four points and one scraper. The collection has been made over the past five years through surface collection, yet the assemblage is surprisingly tight. The Heflon site demonstrates the local expression within the Lake Forest tradition and witnesses the quartz cobble technology as part of that expression.
Lake Hayward at the upper most reaches of the Eight Mile River drainage system has yielded five quartzite eared triangular points, a chert "Vosburg" point, a quartzite drill, a portion of a shallow gouge and an ornately cross-hatched slate ulu. The site is on the crest of a till deposit overlooking a large glacial kettle, that is now a substantial wetland that drains into the man-made Lake Hayward. Excavation of this site was unable to detect reliable features with datable organics. Therefore, this site has been ascribed to the Lake Forest tradition on the basis of its regionally defined diagnostics.
Leffingwell Pond was another site which was situated on the rim of a glacial kettle. In 1984, Wesleyan students, volunteers from ASSEC and the local high school opened up a 48 square meter excavation. There were three components in this site: A Middle Archaic component represented by thirteen Neville type points (Pfeiffer 1986), a complex feature zone with Lake Forest triangular quartzite projectile points, and a Woodland period component that disturbed some of the other levels. Because of the complexity and the compressed stratigraphy (Jordan 1975), the charcoal samples were not considered to be completely reliable with respect to association and were not sent to radiometric labs. Of special importance is that six eared triangular projectile points were found within the site. These artifacts, along with the location of the site, corresponded to already established patterns.
A side note relating to methodology is appropriate at this juncture. If Leffingwell Pond had been tested employing random sampling and test excavation, several alternative conclusions might have been reached depending on where test units were placed. Such conclusions may have suggested one, two, or three components or any combination of these. My assessment of the Woodland period components was based upon the careful removal of matrix from a large probable storage feature with one .5 cm potsherd directly associated. This feature type dotted the site. Although no apparent "living floor" existed that corresponded to the features, reasonable doubt was cast upon our ability to differentiate the various components at the site. It is quite possible that erroneous associations would have been formed. For example, "Lake Forest" point types could have easily been mis-associated with Woodland period dates. The thirteen Neville type points (Dincauze 1976; Hoffman 1985,1991) found at the site could have been interpreted to be part an archaic or woodland assemblage.
Several related sites have been excavated outside the immediate study area. A more controlled regional survey of these outside areas has not been performed and therefore data might not reflect patterns internal to each specific region. However, such sites and corresponding components may serve to test some of the hypotheses established in the study area.
In the winter of 1982-83, ASSEC excavated a portion of Bashan Lake Locus A. The site was located on a knoll 250m long which had been submerged for the past century and was discovered when the lake was drained to facilitate dam repair (Pfeiffer 1983). The knoll contained a major site of well over 2000m2. The test excavation of 24m2 generated excellent evidence of a regional expression of the Lake Forest tradition. Triangular eared projectile points and drills made of both local quartz and more exotic quartzite and chert, a shallow gouge, net sinkers, crystal quartz thumbnail scrapers, and mullers were found in the test excavation. Heavy debitage of quartz and quartzite were encountered. Post molds were recovered in this component, and gravelly, compact living floor areas were detected, as well as hearths and midden scatter. Burned and fragmented hickory nuts from a floor were dated to 4730 + 280 BP [Beta-6723]. Many activities over a period of more than one season were indicated by artifact, floral and faunal analysis. A lacustrine adaptation was hypothesized for this large base camp (Pfeiffer 1983).
At Salmon River, there is a smaller site which has produced quartzite "Vosburg and Brewerton" projectile points (Golet personal communications 1975-present; Kowalsky personal communications 1975-present). These projectiles are of local quartz and quartzite with a few examples of chert. The specimens are similar to those found at Bashan Lake. Refuse pits and hearths were found in this component. A charcoal sample from the bottom level at the site generated a date of 4180 + 90 BP [QC-1157]. This established the pattern for identifying the "Golet phase" (McBride 1984b).
Dill Farm Locus I in East Haddam (Pfeiffer 1986) was excavated primarily to establish the initial development of the lacustrine adaptive pattern witnessed at Bashan Lake. At Dill Farm Locus I, a 14C sample taken from the base of the plow zone generated the date of 4280 BP at the site which involved 97 square meters of excavation. The estimated size of the local Lake Forest component was six to eight square meters. Two large hearths were located in this stratum along with five triangular eared and corner notched projectile points. Beneath this layer was an exceptionally well-stratified Middle and Early Archaic site (Pfeiffer 1986) from which the lacustrine pattern had theoretically evolved.
Dill Farm Locus III was a single component Lake Forest site of 50-100 m2. It too produced strong evidence of the lacustrine adaptation as defined at Bashan Lake. Hearths, a very large storage pit, not unlike the one identified at the Bliss-Howard site in structure II, and a workshop area were found in association with twelve triangular notched and eared projectiles, four thumbnail unifacial end scrapers, drills, and hammerstones. Quartzite and chert materials were shown in both the form of artifacts and debitage.
The last four sites referenced are in East Haddam. Although not as yet encompassed within a complete local analysis, they are all located in the same drainage system and are close to one another.
Gladeview is a site in Old Saybrook that has been excavated for the past three years by ASSEC. Initially, it came to light from an environmental impact statement and cultural resource management project that I undertook in 1987. Several triangular eared projectile points of quartz, two thumbnail unifacial scrapers, various utilized flakes, and an adze or gouge were found in the deepest component thus far exposed. This component is very similar to Lake Forest sites directly across the Connecticut River in Old Lyme. It strengthens the case for the existence of this Late Archaic cultural system in the Lowest Connecticut Valley.
Based upon data generated from within the study area, a convincing case can be made for the existence of a local expression of the Lake Forest tradition during the period between 4800-4250 BP. This cultural system is termed as the Duck Bay phase of the regionally defined Lake Forest adaptation on the basis of the following abstracted subsystems and indicated adaptive strategy.
8.1a Duck Bay phase Economic Subsystem
There are three types of sites recognized for this Late Archaic cultural manifestation: (1) small, back country single activity sites of under 50 m2, (2) small, special purpose multi-activity family sites of 100-400 m2 and (3) large base camps which appear to be permanent or at least semi-permanent. The larger sites are situated adjacent to reliable and productive rivers, wetlands, and lakes. Seed and nut gathering and fishing may well have been as important as hunting in such settings. Such a resource base coupled with the technology to store food may have produced a settlement pattern closer to semi-permanent sedentism (Beardsley et al.1956). This would explain the presence of substantial house patterns and associated burial grounds.
8.1b Duck Bay phase Social Subsystem
Information from Bliss-Howard suggests that individual residence units of family to extended family were likely. While we cannot be certain that the 50-55m2 structure at the Bliss-Howard site represented the usual area in dwellings, it does offer a theoretical starting point for establishing some basic understanding of social composition. The assessment of family to extended family residence units is in keeping with Flannery's (1973:30-33) figure concerning requisite space per individual within a dwelling. He suggests that approximately 10m2 were necessary per individual. Stiles (1755-1794) wrote an historic account concerning a wigwam, of nearly equal size to those on the prehistoric Bliss-Howard site. He observed that it was occupied by a Nehantic "family" who numbered over a dozen people. This group used the wigwam for sleeping but left the structure during the daylight hours. I include the historic information in this discussion not as a demonstration of continuity but rather as an example of the potential range of utilization of space by various peoples. Taking account of both of these assessments, a group size of between 5 and 10 individuals could conservatively be suggested. While I cannot be certain that all structures found at Bliss-Howard were used simultaneously, I would suggest that the site did represent several family units. Evidence for this is that two of the structures cross-referenced temporally. Additionally, a cemetery with at least five individuals interred at the same time implies a greater population of the settlement than a single family. (Pfeiffer and Ziac 1989). I suggest that the population at the Bliss-Howard site was most likely a band that was large when compared to historic examples. The number of twenty-five is often cited as an ideal "magic number" for band level organization, yet both lesser and greater numbers are encountered within the literature (Carniero 1972; Binford 1978; Gould 1978.)
Task groups would periodically go out from these Lake Forest base camps and occupy smaller temporary stations. Hunting parties or possibly small family units working within hunting territories as Jarvenpa (personal communication 1982) has observed with the contemporary Cree may be evidenced for the prehistoric groups in the study area.
While it is certainly speculative at this point in the investigation, there is evidence that the Lake Forest groups exhibited a complex territorial claim of space (Pfeiffer 1984,1990). The basis for this behavior may have been the result of the increase of competition for resources, increased population or a combination of these factors. The evidence for this behavior is the proximity of cemeteries to living areas. Flannery (1973:29) suggests that such behavior is a direct response to the necessity for such a group to claim territory. Similarly, the apparent settlement pattern with large base camps ringed by much smaller task specific sites, is suggestive of territorial behavior where there is the explicit definition of cores and peripheries (Flannery 1973:28). To go along with such spatial behavior were associated stylistic behaviors that may have served to identify members of specific groups. Such artifacts may have served in much the same way as European coats of arms or Scottish tartans (Wobst 1977; Pfeiffer 1986, 1990; Lavin 1988). While certainly speculative in nature I offer the possibility that stylized bannerstones as large and therefore easily visible artifacts could have served to identify individual's affiliation. The inclusion of such artifacts within the burial features of the Bliss site and their apparent ritualistic handling in this mortuary context may take on added significance from this perspective. A Beothuk informant in what is now Newfoundland suggested that historically such artifacts were used at the upper end of a staff (Willoughby 1935:63; Reynolds 1978:107). This ethnographic evidence must be regarded as highly speculative since over 4000 years separate the data. Yet, there are some interesting considerations that should be made that go beyond looking at artifacts as elements of the technological subsystem.
8.1c Duck Bay phase Technological Subsystem
Artifact types as well as floral and faunal remains from these Late Archaic Lake Forest sites indicate a full range of activities: hunting, tool making, fishing, wood and bone working, possibly dugout canoe manufacture, gathering and processing of plant materials (Fig. 8.1.7). Raw materials for tool making are both local and exotic suggesting some trade or procurement systems. Projectile point production is quite standardized, producing strong similarities in precision, quality, dimension and style. Selection of raw material was important to achieve such uniform results, but also cylindrical hammers and punches have been suggested as necessary for achieving replicable length/width and thickness (Dincauze 1968:17).
A notable attribute within this technological subsystem is the presence of triangular eared and corner notched projectiles. Such examples are thin and serrated when made of quartzite and chert, but tend to be thicker and less serrated when made from locally derived quartz cobbles.
Following the lead of Lavin and Russell (1985) and Lavin (1988), there are good reasons to consider this local expression to encompass other triangular forms. First, these triangular forms coexist in some of the components of sites such as Bliss-Howard, Ames, Leffingwell Pond, Heflon, and Arbucci. Second, radiometric dating techniques suggest substantial overlap from site to site and assemblage to assemblage. The variability that is seen in the assemblages is probably a result of differing but contemporaneous functional and stylistic characteristics.
Another feature that should be noted is that there has been an association with relatively long narrow stemmed points at several sites. This may indicate mixture from other components, but I suspect that such points have a place in this cultural subsystem. These points do not closely resemble the narrow stemmed point of the Mast Forest tradition. They are very well made, symmetrical, have finished bases and are strikingly long.
One point that needs to be stressed is that there is substantial evidence supporting the use of quartz cobbles to manufacture some of the tools. An analysis of debitage at the Bliss Howard workshop on the southern exterior of Structure I showed that both quartzite and cobble quartz were being reduced. This pattern was clearly demonstrated at other study area sites such as Ames and Kaiser I.
8.1d Duck Bay phase Ideological Subsystem
The ideological subsystem as inferred from the burial practices of this cultural system was probably an elaborate belief system structured around death and entrance into the spirit world. The archaeological and physical anthropological evidence from this specific study area strongly indicates a complex ritual activity centered around cremation burial. In fact, evidence indicates that such burials were the result of a protracted ceremony that involved several years to complete (Pfeiffer 1984; Pfeiffer and Ziac 1989).
Analysis of human remains from the Bliss site suggests very complete combustion of long bones, an over-representation of identifiable cranial fragments, some of which may have shown signs of being cut, and differential treatment of fingers and toes. There is excellent evidence of two different skeletal components within the cremation features, suggesting two sources of bone offering. First, there are dry bones of the deceased that are nearly completely burned except for the dense lamellar tissue. Second, (Fig. 8.1.8) there are green or in-flesh bones identified as fingers and toes (Pfeiffer and Ziac 1989). The internal structure of the site has some
important characteristics that demand consideration. Burial Feature M revealed the partial remains of five individuals and is therefore a multiple burial. In Feature M there was also a canine tooth and a maxillary fragment from a large dog or wolf. Other burial pits had human skeletal elements that only related to single individuals. The best probable interpretation of this occurrence is that filling of the burial pits from the (thus far undiscovered) crematorium was of a random nature. This interpretation considers that the burial pits were receptacles for crematory ash rather than for the remains of a specific individual.
Burial pits or features varied in size and shape. The smallest, feature H was quite circular and measured under one meter in diameter. Feature B was much larger and oval measuring two meters by one meter. The composition of the burial pits was quite similar, with ash, bone, heat spalled as well as intentionally broken artifacts and food remains. Several pits had lumps of iron pyrite and quartz crystals in their matrices. Animal fat residues were detected during laboratory analysis. Red ocher and ground mica were employed in covering the cremation ash in some of the burial pits (Fig. 8.1.9).
Grave goods were also found in the context of regular habitation sites in the study area. Thus, the artifacts in the burials at the Bliss site were utilitarian. A separate mortuary assemblage is not indicated.
There are data that aid in both reconstructing the ceremonial activities for this culture system as well as indicate some of the components of the ideological subsystem. These include (1) dry bone cremation. As indicated at the Bliss site there is a strong suggestion that a considerable time elapsed between death and the final cremation. According to Ubelaker (1978:35) it takes a minimum of two years for bone to dry out to the point where it will produce the characteristic circular cracking when fired. The site also, (2) witnesses the simultaneous cremation of several individuals. There is (3) clear evidence of fingers and toes that are in flesh, green bone cremation. There is a possibility that such skeletal material is not from the deceased (Ziac and Pfeiffer 1989:59). Such skeletal material may have been offerings given up by mourners (MacKenzie 1801:148-149). There is (4) evidence of dog or wolf cremation and subsequent burial. Finally, there is (5) clear evidence of the incorporation of utilitarian artifacts as well as food offerings into the burials.
A hypothetical reconstruction of the mortuary ceremony directly associated with the Duck Bay phase of the Lake Forest adaptation would in many respects conform to known patterns among the historic Huron and in certain respects to the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek. and other groups who participated in the southeastern ceremonial complex. I by no means imply that these groups are culturally related. However, even though these cultural systems are separated by over 4000 years and thousands of kilometers they may share some very basic North American beliefs.
The Huron feast of the dead was a protracted ceremony that took place only after several members of the group had died. When the appropriate time came for the final interment of these individuals a dog was ritually killed and the individuals were interred with their personal effects (Heidenreich 1978:374). MacKenzie's late 18th century account based on the voyages from Montreal up the Saint Lawrence River adds a major component. Regarding the Huron, he states that, "
Finally, there is significance with respect to the incorporation of lustrous metallic nuggets and quartz crystals within some burial features. There was a strong belief among many historic northeastern Native American groups that through the ritual use of crystals a person could gain power and communicate with the spirit world (Trigger 1978; Hammel 1981).
I suspect that similar beliefs may have been held by the people within the Duck Bay phase culture system. While this is speculative, these interpretations do accommodate the 5 specific observations outlined in the beginning of this section.
8.1e Conclusions: the Duck Bay Phase and Lake Forest Adaptation
The evidence from the study area strongly indicates the presence of this cultural system between 4800-4250 BP. Test data from outside the area does nothing but reinforce the case. As Funk (1988:28) has appropriately noted, "all doubts about the existence of a regional 'Laurentian' complex were dispelled." For the purpose of this dissertation I prefer to refer to this overall adaptive form as the Lake Forest adaptation (Tuck 1978, Snow 1980) and to apply the Duck Bay phase only to this regional cultural expression.
Figure 8.1.1 Study Area Lake Forest Sites: Duck
Bay Phase Dates and Calibrations
| Site | Laboratory
Lab# Date |
Cal BP | Cal BC | Max/Min BP | Max/Min BC |
| Bliss A SI-4846 | 4280+120 | 4850 | 2911 | 4979-4650 | 3030-2701 |
| Bliss SI-5303 | 4675+100 | 5446, 5372, 5329 | 3497, 3423, 3380 | 5570-5299 | 3621-3350 |
| Bliss SI-5304 | 4775+120 | 5569, 5523, 5482 | 3620, 3574, 3533 | 5649-5320 | 3700-3380 |
| Bliss SI-5305 | 4535+95 | 5285, 5165, 5144 | 3336, 3216, 3195 | 5320-4994 | 3371-3045 |
| Bliss SI-5306 | 4765+180 | 5566, 5526, 5478 | 3617, 3577, 3529 | 5725-5299 | 3776-3350 |
| Bliss-HowGX-10848 | 4410+100 | 4986 | 3037 | 5269-4860 | 3320-2920 |
| Ames GX-3386 | 4275+255 | 4860 | 2911 | 5279-4455 | 3330-2506 |
| Arbucci GX-10852 | 4470+100 | 5212, 5195, 5051 | 3263, 3246, 3102 | 5299-4877 | 3350-2928 |
| Bashan LKBeta6723 | 4730+280 | 5543, 5538, 5463, 5340,5339 | 3594, 3589, 3514, 3391,3390 | 5739-4997 | 3790-3048 |
Figure 8.1.2
Figure 8.1.3
Figure
8.1.4
Figure
8.1.5
Figure 8.1.6
Figure 8.1.7
Figure
8.1.8
Figure 8.1.9 
Figure
8.1.10
8.2 Evidence for the Local Expression of the MastForest Tradition in the Study Area
The second series of sites in the study area represents a very persistent cultural pattern in Connecticut. The narrow stemmed points of the Mast Forest tradition endured from the final centuries of the Late Archaic well into the Woodland period (Lavin 1984, McBride 1984a&b, Pfeiffer 1984, Funk and Pfeiffer 1988). This represents a major deviation from the cultural chronological model established in New York (Ritchie 1969a, Funk 1984).
McBride (1984a&b) has subdivided this regional expression of the Mast Forest into two cultural phases, Vibert and Tinkham. The archaeological basis for these distinctions comes from northeastern Connecticut. McBride (1984b:257) suggests that Vibert sites "have not been adequately tested". The definition of this phase is based upon the form of the projectile points and slight differences in site distribution. Lavin and Russell (1985) and Funk (1988) have suggested the "Vibert" phase is part of the broader better defined cultural system of the Late Archaic-Lake Forest adaptation. I discussed this interwoven relationship in section 8.1a-e.
The "Tinkham phase" (McBride 1984a&b) has been much better defined as a viable cultural system in McBride's study area. The original name came from an interior site in northeastern Connecticut which was studied by Jordan (N.D.), but was undated.
In this study area, the Brodeur Point site was excavated in 1981 by students from SUNY Albany, Wesleyan University, and volunteers from ASSEC. An excavation of 16 square meters revealed very dense and prolific cultural components that were characterized primarily by narrow stemmed points, a quartz cobble industry, hammerstones, knives, scrapers, and a fully grooved ground stone axe. McBride went back to the site in 1983 with a crew from the University of Connecticut and delineated the same internal relationships but was unfortunately unable to recover adequate organic material for dating.
The 1981 excavation outlined Stratum D of the site, which corresponded to the oldest component in the Brodeur Point site, and was from the Late Archaic period. A large pit with a flecked charcoal matrix contained burned wood, quartz debitage and a half dozen narrow stemmed projectile points. This feature extended down 1.4 m into glacial outwash. A radiometric date derived from the burned wood was 4240 + 80 BP [SI-5308]. This component was stratigraphically apparent and very well documented in the rest of the excavation as a genuine cultural zone. There was a very faint but archaeologically distinct component on top of Stratum D. This zone, Stratum C, had a very different assemblage characterized by quartzite. This level was dated by charcoal from a directly associated hearth. A date of 2970 + 85 BP [SI-5309] was determined for this feature and corresponding cultural stratum.
The most recent component at the site, Stratum B, was directly above this feature, separated by 5cm of chestnut colored matrix. It contained an assemblage identical to Stratum D with one exception; Stratum B also had Vinette 1 ceramics. The association of narrow stemmed projectile points and early Woodland ceramics is unmistakable. Unfortunately, Stratum B could not be dated directly. However, the underlying Stratum C was dated to 2970 BP and therefore, Stratum B which overlay this date had to be more recent.
The association of narrow stemmed points and Vinette 1 and 2 ceramics was made at Great Island by excavations undertaken by SUNY Albany, Wesleyan, and ASSEC volunteers under my direction. (The site is referenced in section 8.3). The radiometric date directly dating this association of ceramics and narrow stemmed points was 2235 + 150 BP [GX-10851].
McBride (1984b:128) witnessed the same archaeological condition and identified this more recent unit as the Brodeur Point phase. However he states, "that Tinkham and Brodeur Point phases are best interpreted as a single cultural system that is undergoing change over a long period of time." (McBride 1984b:295).
I interpret the Tinkham and Brodeur Point phases as seen at the Brodeur Point site as indicating large seasonal encampments with many activities taking place. Hunting and processing, cooking, storage, tool making and woodworking are all in evidence.
McBride (1984b) and Bellantoni observed the identical pattern at Cooper's site at the mouth of Eight Mile River. This site lies in a riverine setting up the Connecticut River in Lyme. There was a deep Tinkham phase component characterized by narrow stemmed projectile points and a quartz cobble industry. Overlying this component was a thin but recognizable deposit of the Broad Spear complex which was again overlain by a Brodeur Point component.
Griswold Point is an open air coastal site with an expansive shell midden deposit. There are hearths, burials, workshops, and several distinct cultural and temporal loci. In 1981, 6 m2 were excavated by a SUNY Albany, Wesleyan University, and ASSEC crew under my direction. A very prolific component with narrow stemmed points, unifacial choppers, knives, scrapers, hammerstones, and ground stone artifacts was recovered. The debitage from the layer associated with narrow stemmed points was primarily characterized by quartz; however, green slate was also found. Faunal evidence from the component included oyster, quahog, deer (lower limbs), bird, and fish (shark). A section of a large hearth was exposed, but an insufficient amount of charcoal was collected.
In the early sixties and in a separate locus of Griswold Point, I, along with others noted a primary burial at the bottom of the midden underneath a large hearth. An antler flaking tool, a series of split quartz cobbles and a narrow stemmed projectile point were found in this burial. Praus (1942), who also excavated in this site noted a similar association.
The Ely's Ferry site has been collected by amateurs for years. Although never excavated, review of several collections provides reasonable evidence of a Tinkham phase occupation (McBride 1984b) of considerable size, certainly over 200 square meters. Narrow stemmed points, quartz cobble, unifaces and bifaces, three grooved winged bannerstones, and pitted stones have been found. There are also several hot spots, that may correspond to different occupation loci. This site may well have been a place to which Tinkham phase groups returned on a periodic basis.
The Ames site, a rock shelter with 150m2 of potential living space, was investigated in 1973 and was the first site studied in this local analysis. The delineation of independent narrow point associated cultural units is problematic. There was just one 50 cm thick deposit. What can be said is that there was a deep stratum (IVB) that was pre-ceramic and directly overlay a Duck Bay phase component. Stratum IVB represented the Mast Forest tradition and produced Tinkham phase material. In this stratum were over fifty narrow stemmed points, 97% of which were quartz. Debitage reflected a heavy reliance upon the use of local quartz cobbles and hammerstones. Bifacial knives and choppers were identified, as well as a deer ulna awl. Within the matrix of this stratum were many split and burned bones. Such splitting and subsequent "boiling" may have been employed in the making of soup or stew. When such samples were sent to Geochron labs for collagen dating, it was determined that collagen had been removed. This would occur if the bone was boiled for a long time (Pardi personal communication 1974). Bellantoni (personal communication 1984) has described similar findings from samples that he had studied while performing faunal analyses.
At the Ames site there was a thick zone that produced narrow stemmed projectile points, debitage of the quartz cobble industry and was pre-ceramic at its base and had ceramic associations in its upper limits. There was clear evidence of narrow stemmed projectile points occurring in association with Vinette 1 ceramics. This relationship was obviously important, but it could not be dated accurately. The Mast Forest tradition which can be confidently delineated from the zones above and below it cannot be distinctly subdivided. The various kinds of cultural material in the zone suggested that there was an expanded range of activities. Hunting, butchering and meat processing, cooking, tool manufacture, sewing or lacing, along with the broad distribution over the entire site suggested more than short term special purpose occupation.
Faunal remains from the narrow stemmed-Vinette 1 associated zone were from juvenile and mature deer, woodchuck, rabbit, duck, turkey, ruffed grouse, sea gull, oyster and quahog. This seems to suggest a diffuse adaptation that took advantage of various environmental zones. It is possible that the site may have been used during the late fall and winter based upon the presence of small juvenile deer. All phases of narrow stemmed affiliation were represented at the site. Therefore Tinkham, Cedar Lake and Brodeur Point phases are indicated by the deep unbroken cultural deposit. Because of this homogeneity, except for ceramic and pre-ceramic association, this unit may be considered to demonstrate the persistence of the not only a type of projectile point but also the development of related culture systems from the Mast Forest adaptation.
There are five other sites in the study area that are of similar size and demonstrate comparable range of activities. The Ames site was, however, the only rock shelter within this size range. It also was the only site that can be shown to have evidence of all the narrow stemmed associated phases. There could be several reasons why Ames revealed such evidence. Certainly one likely reason could be sampling bias since Ames was more thoroughly excavated while the others were less completely sampled. Another plausible answer could be that the Ames site as a rock-shelter presented more reliable and predictable habitation conditions. It might therefore have been used more heavily, and for a longer time. The smallest sized sites are well under 50 m2 in size. These suggest a restricted range of activities and probably represent specific task oriented short term occupations. Nine such sites were identified in the study area. Four of these were excavated, while the other five were found through survey and informant data, and then tested.
The Chadwick site, excavated in 1981 by Wesleyan students and ASSEC members, was a small open air habitation area located in a very similar setting to Brodeur Point. A hearth and a lithic workshop were seen in the small excavation of four square meters. Charcoal and hickory nut fragments were found in the hearth. These fragments extended out beyond the hearth and aided in revealing a single stratum, that defined a workshop area. Here there was evidence of quartz cobble and also green slate reduction. A large anvilstone was identified in a cluster of debitage. Four projectile points came from the small excavation. All the projectile points had the uncharacteristic attribute of finished and slightly indented bases. However, other than this variation, these were narrow stemmed points. A radiocarbon analysis of the hickory nut fragments produced the date of 4295 + 90 BP [SI-5312].
Outside, but adjacent to this study area are the Gladeview, Bashan Lake, and Salmon River sites. These correlate with the pattern established at Brodeur Point. They were large seasonal encampments located on lacustrine or riverine environments, with a full range of activities and strong evidence of both the Tinkham and Brodeur Point phases.
The Two Springs site (Funk and Pfeiffer 1988) on Fishers Island corresponds to the type of site represented by Chadwick and Mile Creek Locus I (see appendix). Such sites are small temporary special-purpose encampments. A restricted range of activities is seen in such components. The date associated with the Late Archaic component at Two Springs was 3630 + 250 BP [GX-12,564] and is compatible with the Tinkham phase. The second date at Two Springs corresponds to the association of narrow stemmed points and ceramics. The date of 2605 + 255 BP [GX-12561] and the cultural expression witnessed here closely resembles the Brodeur Point phase.
During the Terminal Archaic period, there is a persistence of the narrow stemmed point tradition in the study area. However, there is evidently a concentration of settlement in the uplands to the exclusion of occupation in the riverine and coastal areas. This represents a redirection of the settlement by the cultures that were using narrow stemmed projectile points, the quartz cobble industry, the diffuse hunting and gathering strategy, and were the descendants of the Mast Forest adaptation.
Archaeologically, this is seen as a clear interruption of the cultural stratigraphy for the Tinkham and Brodeur Point associated components in river bottom lands and coastal settings. This is clearly demonstrated at the Brodeur Point site. This stratigraphic interruption has convincingly enabled the delineation of the Tinkham and Brodeur Point phases. McBride (1984 b) observed this same pattern at Cooper's site at the mouth of the Eight Mile River in Lyme.
This interruption of the stratigraphic sequence is witnessed at Gladeview in Old Saybrook just as it had been within the study area sites of Brodeur Point and Cooper"s. Gladeview, located directly across the Connecticut River from study area, showed the Brodeur Point phase to reappear in riverine lowland and coastal sites with the characteristic inventory of tools. However, this later cultural manifestation was characterized by the addition of ceramics. As at the other study area sites, a wide range of activities was indicated, as well as a generally diffuse pattern of subsistence.
There was no apparent break or interruption of the Mast Forest Archaic, Terminal Archaic or Early Woodland narrow stemmed producing occupations at interior upland sites in the study area. The Ames site and the corresponding Tinkham, Cedar Lake, and Brodeur Point phase deposits of IVA&B exemplified this situation.
Single component sites have helped to confirm this pattern. Cedar Lake in the Eight Mile River drainage system of Lyme was excavated in 1983 by McBride and a crew from the University of Connecticut. The interpretation of this site was that it had been a large seasonal camp. Narrow stemmed points and quartz debitage were found during the survey, suggestive of a quartz cobble industry. It dated to 2910 + 110 BP [Beta 5317], and was thus assigned to the Terminal Archaic period. Of significance here is Cedar Lake's cultural identity, upland lacustrine setting and Terminal Archaic temporal position. Sites outside the study area establish the continuation of this narrow point complex and quartz cobble industry into and through Terminal Archaic.
A shelter was found by Rick Todzia an amateur archaeologist at Candlewood Hill in Haddam, ten kilometers north of the study area. It is small and quite inaccessible. Its area is approximately 4m2 and the floor is presently choked by rockfalls. A test excavation revealed a single deep component made up of narrow stemmed points and debitage produced from a quartz cobble industry. A hearth and charcoal which generated a date of 3470 + 60 BP [Beta 3950]) was associated with the artifacts.
I tentatively suggest that the Mast Forest tradition Tinkham phase evolved substantially through time with respect to settlement pattern and economy. This was manifested by an expanding interior upland concentration with inferred changes of adaptive strategy. On account of this cultural redirection, it would be appropriate to posit a Cedar Lake phase of the Terminal Archaic period. Its temporal range was probably between 3600 and 2900 BP. However, more 14C age determinations would be useful to better establish the chronological position of this phase.
Based upon the data generated from in the study area, a case can be made for the existence of a Late Archaic local expression of the Mast Forest adaptation. This generalized cultural system spanned the period of time--4300 to 3600 BP. This adaptation can then be shown to develop into the Cedar Lake phase that spanned most of the Terminal Archaic period 3600-2900BP., and the Brodeur Point phase that developed during the beginning of the Early Woodland period 2900-2200BP. (Fig. 8.2.1). The basis for such subdivision are fluctuations in the social, economical, and technological subsystems. These local expressions can be defined by the archaeological reconstruction of the cultural subsystems. These are characterized in the following sections.
8.2a The Economic Subsystem
The economic subsystem can be characterized as especially diffuse for the Tinkham and Brodeur Point phases. The overall adaptation was towards making the best use of local resources. Similarly, this local flavor extends over to the use and sources of lithic material. Trade was not seen as a major element in the economy. An interesting difference between Mast Forest and related phases and Lake Forest sites is the use of storage pits. Lake Forest peoples commonly stored materials while Mast Forest and the subsequent cultural phases employed this technology sparingly. In the study area, there were very few storage pits encountered for any of the Mast Forest adaptation or related phases. This probably corresponds to these culture system's interrelated social and economic subsystems, where spatial behavior and subsistence strategy likely involved many shifts of site location over the course of the year to gain immediate access to available resources. While this pattern existed throughout the entire span of these related adaptations, during the Cedar Lake phase there was a restricted spatial range but apparently a continued mobile subsistence strategy. Specifically, with respect to the economic subsystem, there is a clear difference between the three phases. The exploitation of marine, aquatic and terrestrial resources can be shown for the Tinkham and Brodeur Point phases, while the Cedar Lake phase showed the specialized utilization of terrestrial, and upland aquatic resources. Yet even under more restricted economic conditions there was no evidence for storage.
8.2b Social Subsystem
There are three basic site types that relate to social organization and adaptive strategies: (1) large sites situated adjacent to reliable food producing zones, (2) moderate sized sites which exhibited a more restricted range of activities, and (3) small back country task specific sites. The social organization as indicated by site size and range of activity would suggest the existence of band units. With the flexibility of site relocation and variability of activity I would suggest that social grouping within such sites was equally flexible and at times the band dispersed into family or small task specific groupings. The concept of mobile opportunistic bands certainly would fit the known settlement pattern. This description probably holds for the three cultural phases. However, the Cedar Lake phase had a more restricted range of sites with a particular concentration on uplands, upland lakes, streams and wetlands.
8.2c The Technological Subsystem
The technological subsystem was based on hunting and gathering. Tools associated with these are narrow stemmed projectile points, drills, knives, scrapers, choppers, spherical hammerstones, axes, pestles, anvils, pitted stones, bone awls, and net sinkers. Coupled with this inventory of tools is the quartz cobble industry. Toward the end of the Terminal Archaic period and the Brodeur Point phase, Vinette 1 ceramics can be added to the items in the technological subsystem.
The quartz cobble industry, while not exclusive to the Mast Forest adaptation and the related phases (see section 8.1c), was its most important chipped stone tool manufacturing system. A cursory review of the debitage from Ames IVB and Brodeur Point clearly points this out. My own replicative experimentation in the working of quartz cobbles collected from beaches has enabled me to closely approximate the ratio of cortex to non-cortex debitage from both sites, as well as the intermediate steps to final completion of narrow stemmed points. This approach has aided in interpreting the debitage signature of the quartz cobble industry (Kalin personal communications 1981). Direct percussion employing spherical hammerstones was the predominant manufacturing method. This approach to tool production generated imprecise impact zones on the cobble that made short and equally wide flakes. This was the primary method of making narrow stemmed projectile points. These projectiles can be thick and often bear a medial knob that represents a zone that could not be sufficiently thinned.
Another interesting side benefit of this particular replicative research has been to increase the general understanding of the selection or raw material. It has been asserted by many northeastern archaeologists (Ritchie 1969b; Dincauze 1975; Snow 1980; and McBride 1984b) that the quartz cobbles were collected locally. However, from my own replicative experimentation, I have determined that the best quartz cobbles for producing narrow stemmed points are difficult to find in the study area. Instead, cobbles from the Long Island south shore are the best from the perspective of having the lowest incidence mid-stage production failure. There is a simple explanation for this pattern. Most mid-stage production failures occur due to unseen flaws in the cobbles. Cobbles from the north and especially the south shore of Long Island have significantly fewer flaws. This is due to the original source of the quartz and the nature of its transportation to the collection point. Cobbles that have gone through long processes of transportation have a greater chance of collisions with other cobbles. This has had the tendency to cull out those cobbles with flaws. The result is that Long Island deposits, which are at the end of glacial transportation produce reliable material for producing stone tools (Kalin personal communications). While I cannot be certain that such observations were either made or, were viable in the past, I offer this as a cautionary note for those inferring selection of raw material.
There are other characteristics to the technological subsystem besides hunting and the corresponding production of stone projectile points. While the best evidence is not demonstrated in the immediate survey area, at Bashan Lake there is convincing data which relate to fishing. The Mast Forest Archaic and the subsequent related components have stone fish weirs and directly associated net sinkers (Pfeiffer 1983). There is a strong suggestion that these two types of artifacts were used together to produce an effective fishing technology. Both types of artifacts have been reported and found independently in the immediate survey area and I suspect that the same relationship exists.
The last technological feature is exclusive to the Brodeur Point phase. This is the production of ceramic vessels. At this stage of the study it is impossible to state how complete vessels appeared. We do have examples of this "conical ceramic type" from Connecticut, New York, and Massachusetts (Ritchie 1969b; Snow 1980) and there is the potential that ceramic form was similar. The ceramic fragments found at Brodeur Point were up to 1cm thick and displayed very coarse tempering. Such temper, or "grog" as contemporary potters refer to it, was composed of sharp angular quartz and feldspar fragments occurring in sizes between .1 and .3cm. The purpose of grog or temper is to aid in binding the clay particles together during both the forming, drying, and firing process of the vessel. The exterior of the sherds were crudely smoothed and paddled while the interior had clear signs a heavy fabric or cordage. This may suggest that this early ceramic type was formed around a template.
8.2d The Ideological Subsystem
Tentative conclusions pertaining to the ideological subsystem can be drawn on the basis of the mortuary program associated with Mast Forest Archaic adaptation and the subsequent related phases. Unfortunately there is not a great deal of information pertaining to the mortuary program in the study area. From my own study in the area (prior to 1972), there is a suggestion of primary burial and the incorporation of a few grave goods. This was seen at the Griswold Point site where I saw a primary burial, quartz cobbles, an antler flaking tool, narrow stemmed projectile points within a burial pit beneath the deep midden deposit. Praus (1942) records a similar association at the same site. Neither of these burials are dated and their cultural affinity can only be ascribed on the basis of regionally defined typological attributes.
Primary burials with complete unbroken grave goods may represent a perspective of the afterlife that was very different from the Lake Forest adaptation. The treatment of the remains of the deceased may imply a relatively less protracted burial ceremony. I suspect that in fact this interment represents the burial of a complete and unaltered corpse. This point could be clarified through physical anthropological analysis. The incorporation of the complete artifacts would be in keeping with this preliminary interpretation. When complete unbroken artifacts are associated with primary burials there is the implication that there is the belief in a material world afterlife. This is the belief that suggests the next world is an extension of this world. In this ideological perspective the entirebody is making a transition. The deceased sleeps but will need his or her body as well as their various possessions to either complete the journey or possibly initiate a new life (Pfeiffer 1982:100; Robinson personal communications 1986).
8.2e Implications of Tinkham, Cedar Lake and Brodeur Point Phase Development
Evidence from the study area indicates a progression of closely related but distinct cultural systems to have existed in the area from circa 4300 to 2200 BP. Test data from adjacent areas does nothing to put this in dispute, and it does offer some support in terms of temporal control. The added dates and settlement information raise the issue that between 3600-2900 BP there may have been a relocation of population to upland sites adjacent interior streams, lakes, and wetlands (Pfeiffer 1984, McBride 1989, Pagoulatos 1988).
In keeping with McBride's (1984b) terminology, and to limit confusion, I propose that the first phase distinction of the Mast Forest adaptation be the Tinkham phase which spanned the period between 4300-3600 BP. The cutoff date seriously departs from McBride (1984a&b) in that he carries it through to 2900 BP. My reason for the earlier cutoff date is that I hypothesize the Cedar Lake phase to have developed at about this time. I see the Cedar Lake phase as including an intensification of settlement by the Tinkham phase culture to the uplands while simultaneously abandoning sites in coastal and river bottomlands. This redirection of settlement occurs between 3600-2900 BP. Thus I depart from McBride in that I consider the change in settlement pattern to be suggestive of a cultural realignment and thus requiring a separate phase distinction. After 2900 BP, there is strong evidence of the Brodeur Point phase, that extends to at least 2200 BP in the study area. Here there is another cultural relocation or shift back onto the coastal and river bottom lands as well as the continued use of upland areas.
Figure 8.2.1 Study and Adjacent Area Mast Forest
and Related Sites Dates and Calibrations
| Site | Laboratory
Lab # Date |
Cal BP | Cal BC | Max/Min BP | Max/Min BC |
| Brodeur Pt SI-5308 | 4240+80 | 4841 | 2892 | 4868-4650 | 2919-2701 |
| Great Is GX-10851 | 2235+150 | 2317, 2222, 2217 | 368, 273, 268 | 2359-2059 | 410-110 |
| Chadwick SI-5312 | 4295+90 | 4863 | 2914 | 4979-4732 | 3030-2783 |
| Two Sprg GX-12564 | 3630+250 | 3976, 3943, 3936 | 2027, 1994, 1987 | 4402-3629 | 2453-1680 |
| Two Sprg GX-12561 | 2605+255 | 2751 | 802 | 2969-2349 | 1020-400 |
| Cedar Lake Beta5317 | 2910+110 | 3049 | 1100 | 3249-2882 | 1300-933 |
| Cndl H1 Beta3950 | 3470+60 | 3815, 3795, 3721 | 1866, 1846, 1772 | 3835-3654 | 1886-1705 |
Figure 8.2.2 Span of Local Cultural Phases
Based upon Laboratory Dates in BP
Phase Span Adaptation Duck Bay 4800=4250 Lake Forest Great Island 3600-2700 River Plain Tinkham 4300-3600 Mast Forest Cedar Lake 3500-2900 Mast Forest related Brodure Pt. 2900-2200 Mast Forest related
Figure 8.2.3a
Fig.8-2-3b
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Dr. John E. Pfeiffer